History and Properties of M-Theory

M-Theory is the name for a unified version of string theory, proposed in 1995 by the physicist Edward Witten. At the time of the proposal, there were 5 variations of string theory, but Witten put forth the idea that each was a manifestation of a single underlying theory. Witten and others identified several forms of duality between the theories which, together with certain assumptions about the nature of the universe, could allow for them to all be one single theory: M-Theory. One of the major components of M-Theory is that it required adding yet another dimension on top of the already-numerous extra dimensions of string theory so that the relationships between the theories could be worked out. The Second String Theory Revolution In the 1980s and early 1990s, string theory had reached something of a problem due to an abundance of riches. By applying supersymmetry to string theory, into the combined superstring theory, physicists (including Witten himself) had explored the possible structures of these theories, and the resulting work had shown 5 distinct versions of superstring theory. Research further showed that you could use certain forms of mathematical transformations, called S-duality and T-duality,  between the different versions of string theory. Physicists were at a loss   At a physics conference on string theory, held at the University of Southern California in spring of 1995, Edward Witten proposed his conjecture that these dualities be taken seriously. What if, he suggested, the physical meaning of these theories is that the different approaches to string theory were different ways of mathematically expressing the same underlying theory. Though he did not have the details of that underlying theory mapped out, he suggested the name for it, M-Theory. Part of the idea at the heart of string theory itself is that the four dimensions (3 space dimensions and one time dimension) of our observed universe can be explained by thinking of the universe as having 10 dimensions, but then compactifying 6 of those dimensions up into a sub-microscopic scale that is never observed. Indeed, Witten himself was one of the people who had developed this method back in the early 1980s! He now suggested doing the same thing, by assuming additional dimensions that would allow for the transformations between the different 10-dimensional string theory variants. The enthusiasm of research that sprung out of that meeting, and the attempt to derive the properties of M-Theory, inaugurated an era that some have called the second string theory revolution or second superstring revolution. Properties of M-Theory Though physicists have still not uncovered the secrets of M-Theory, they have identified several properties that the theory would have if Wittens conjecture turns out to be true: 11 dimensions of spacetime  (these extra dimensions should not be confused with the idea in physics of a multiverse of parallel universes)contains strings and branes (originally called membranes)methods of using compactification to explain how the extra dimensions reduce to the four spacetime dimensions we observedualities and identifications within the theory that allow it to reduce to special cases of the string theories known, and ultimately into the physics we observe in our universe What does the M Stand For? It is unclear what the M in M-Theory is meant to stand for, though it is likely that it originally stood for Membrane since these had just been discovered to be a key element of string theory. Witten himself has been enigmatic on the subject, stating that the meaning of the M can be selected for taste. Possibilities include Membrane, Master, Magic, Mystery, and so on. A group of physicists, led in large part by Leonard Susskind, have developed Matrix Theory, which they believe could eventually co-opt the M if it is ever shown to be true. Is M-Theory True? M-Theory, like the variants of string theory, has the problem that it is at present makes no real predictions that can be tested in an attempt to confirm or refute the theory. Many theoretical physicists continue to research this area, but when you have over two decades of research with no solid results, enthusiasm undoubtedly wanes a bit. There is no evidence, however, that strong argues that Wittens M-Theory conjecture is false, either. This may be a case where a failure to disprove the theory, such as by showing it to be internally contradictory or inconsistent in some way, is the best that physicists can hope for at the time being.

The First Person Narrator in J.D Salinger’s The Catcher in...

In J.D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, the first person narration played a critical role in helping the reader to know and understand the main character, Holden Caulfield. Salinger also uses symbolism to help portray the theme that not everything that glitters is gold. Holden, in his narration, relates a flashback of a significant period of his life, three days and nights on his own in New York City. Through his narration, Holden discloses to the reader his innermost thoughts and also helps to introduce the reader to many of the symbols strategically placed throughout the novel. He thus provides the reader with not only information of what occurred, but also how he felt about what happened. In the Catcher in the Rye, Holden views the†¦show more content†¦The three days we learn of in the novel find a lost and distressed Holden in the Manhattan area of New York City. We find Holden surrounded by the lights and splendor of the holidays in the big city but, much to Ho lden’s despair he is still unable to find even a moments peace in the city surrounded by the drunks, perverts, morons and screwballs. Holden’s strange convictions towards the world and everyone in it never wavered except during his encounter with Mr. Antolini. After first suspecting Mr. Antolini of being a pervert for patting him on the head while he slept Holden gave it a second thought and begin to think that maybe he just liked patting guys on the head while they slept. This still doesn’t constitute a big change in Holden though because while he agrees it’s a nice change he doesn’t believe it will last very long at all. â€Å"It’s not too bad when the sun’s out, but the sun only comes out when it feels like coming out† Salinger, J. D. Catcher in the rye. Boston: Little, Brown, 1991.it is clear that Holden was using the sun to relate to the goodness and decency in the world and his apparent thoughts that the world was still a very evil and immoral place. What does change in Holden during the course of the book is his idea that he can somehow change the world and help it to move out of its corrupt state. Holden is also moved to the eventual realization that not only can he not change the world but he is also unable to hideShow MoreRelatedF. Salinger s The Catcher Of The Rye1121 Words   |  5 PagesOne of the best known novels in English-speaking countries, J.D Salinger’s Catcher In The Rye deals with Holden Caulfield’s past trauma which is the triggering factor in his depression, anxiety and alienation. Holden tells an unnamed person what has happened in the three days prior to his mental breakdown. Through Holden’s relatable characteristics and Salinger’s narrative treatment, the book continues to engage audiences across generations. The way that Salinger writes gives the audience a veryRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye Essay790 Words   |  4 PagesThe Catcher in the Rye is a novel by J.D. Salinger. It is narrated by Holden Caulfield, a cynical teenager who recently got expelled from his fourth school. Though Holden is the narrator and main character of the story, the focus of Salinger’s tale is not on Caulfield, but of the world in which we live. The Catcher in the Rye is an insatiable account of the realities we face daily seen through the eyes of a bright young man whose visions of the world are painfully truthful, if not a bit jaded. Salinger’sRead More Catcher in the Rye Essay: Holden - The Misfit Hero2101 Words   |  9 PagesThe Misfit Hero of The Catcher In The Rye      Ã‚     The Catcher In The Rye by J.D. Salinger was published in 1951. A recurring theme in J.D. Salingers stories concerns people who dont fit in with the traditional American Culture. Salingers misfit heroes, unlike the rest of society, are caught in the struggle between a superficial world and a conscious morality (1 Wildermuth). In his attempt to create a new and realistic portrayal of the times, Salinger first, effectively creates Holden CaulfieldRead MoreCatcher in the Rye4413 Words   |  18 PagesThe Catcher in the Rye â€Å"Is The Catcher in the Rye, as a work of literature still relevant for today’s youth?† Name: Sara Sigurdson Course: English A1 Supervisor: Mr. Peter Steadman Word count: 3851 Candidate number: 00136022 Table of Contents Content Page Number Abstract 3 Introduction 4 The Actual Catcher in the Rye 4 The Sexual Matter 5 The Caulfield Family 6 Narrator and Protagonist 8 Role Model 9 Mr. Antolini 10 Targeted Audience 10 Guidance 12 Read MoreChristopher from The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon and Holden from J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye1058 Words   |  5 PagesChristopher from The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon and Holden from J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye Holden from The Catcher in the Rye by J.D Salinger and Christopher from The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon are both two very interesting first person narrators in many different ways. Holden is a 17years old boy having difficulty staying in schools more than 6 months because he doesnt work enough and ChristopherRead MoreThe Characterization Of Bildungsroman In The Catcher In The Rye1400 Words   |  6 PagesDevice). In The Catcher In The Rye, the author creates a successful bildungsroman through the characterization of the novels protagonist, Holden Caulfield. Throughout the novel, Holden uses a jarred voice filled with cynicism and the overall tone is clearly depressing. The conflict between Holden and the values of society(Bildungsroman: A Literary Device) is quite clear as he believes that the world of an adult is filled with pain and disappointment. In The Catcher In The Rye, the methods of characterizationRead MoreThe Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger1104 Words   |  4 Pages J.D. Salinger has written multiple novels, but his most famous is The Catcher in the Rye. Not only is this novel famous for its literary merit, it is also known as his most banned novel in certain schools. Even though this novel has been banned, J.D. Salinger’s themes and moralistic pur poses serve literary worth. In The Catcher in the Rye, the reader is first introduced to Holden Caulfield, as first person narrator. He is a radically independent adolescent who tosses off judgments at ease unselfconsciouslyRead MoreAmerican Literature And Ways They Cultivate Their Own Methods Of Survival Within Their Societies1484 Words   |  6 Pagescusp of childhood and adulthood, the lonely adolescent navigates through a loss of innocence and disenchantment to come to terms with his own male identity, as well as establish his role in society and find purpose as an adult. J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye follows anti-hero Holden Caulfield through a seemingly innocuous trip in New York City. Throughout his journey, Holden tries desperately to interact with others but often finds himself alienated; in this way, Salinger portrays himRead MoreConflicting Perspectives - Hughes1429 Words   |  6 PagesTogether the works of Ted Hughes, Christine Jeffs and J.D Salinger combine to enhance an understanding of the concept of conflicting perspectives. The audience can see that there is a great deal of ubiquity in relation to Conflicting Perspectives. Ted Hughes’ poetry gives his account of a tumultuous part of his life whilst Christine Jeff’s film portrays a different point of view than that given by Hughes’. It is through looking at Salinger’s novel, that the role of the authorial voice in contrastRead MoreThe Use of Language in J.D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye3182 Words   |  13 PagesThe use of language in J. D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of J.D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye, is an upper-class boy who has gone from one private school to another, searching for -- something. He expresses his frustrations in language highly characteristic of adolescence; his extremely colloquial speech sounds just like that of teenagers today, even though Salingers novel was written in the 1950s. But a particularly striking factor of Holdens narration is

Should the Sat Be Required Free Essays

First introduced in the year 1926, for many years now – the SAT, or Scholastic Assessment Test, has been a major part of our high schooler’s education. It is a requirement in order to graduate – and is a chief determining factor in whether or not a student will be accepted into certain colleges. In fact, a student could have straight D’s and C’s, yet if they were to receive a perfect or near perfect score on this particular test – they would be able to apply and be accepted into the most prestigious of schools. We will write a custom essay sample on Should the Sat Be Required? or any similar topic only for you Order Now I think this is absolutely ludicrous. The SAT test is one tailored to be one of the trickiest you’ve ever taken, one that is actually designed to fool you into misunderstanding every question. Not to mention the stress that overcomes most students as they’re taking this timed test, second guessing every answer and worrying about every little thing until finally the time is up – and they feel like a failure. It’s silly to put a student in this atmosphere – where most are not at their best – test them on random subjects, and then allow this score to come before every other score they’ve ever received in their life. Indeed a quote from Einstein comes to mind as I think about it, â€Å"Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a  fish  by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid†. The SAT has been under scrutiny for years now, often accused of being biased in the upper class’ favor. In fact, studies have shown that students from families with an income less than $20,000 a year received an average score of 1,310, while students from families with incomes over $200,000 averaged in at about 1,715 – a difference of 405 points. There was also a large controversy over the ‘oarsman-regatta analogy question’. The purpose of the question poised was â€Å"to find the pair of terms that have the relationship most similar to the relationship between â€Å"runner† and â€Å"marathon†. The correct answer was â€Å"oarsman† and â€Å"regatta†. The choice of the correct answer presupposed students’ familiarity with crew, a sport popular with the wealthy, and so upon their knowledge of its structure and terminology. Fifty-three percent of white students correctly answered the question, while only 22% of black students also scored correctly. However, according to Murray and Herrnstein, the black-white gap is smaller in culture-loaded questions like this one than in questions that appear to be culturally neutral. Analogy questions have since been replaced by short reading passages†. In response to the controversy, a growing number of colleges have chosen to join the ‘SAT optional movement’, a movement made popular in the late 1980s. Said colleges do not require the SAT for admission. In a 2001 speech to the  American Council on Education,  Richard C. Atkinson, the president of the  University of California, urged dropping the SAT Reasoning Test as a college admissions requirement, â€Å"Anyone involved in education should be concerned about how overemphasis on the SAT is distorting educational priorities and practices, how the test is perceived by many as unfair, and how it can have a devastating impact on the self-esteem and aspirations of young students. There is widespread agreement that overemphasis on the SAT harms American education†. I very much agree with his argument, and many are starting to see his point as well. I am very hopeful that in the growing infamy of the test, it will vanish as a requirement all together, and that the next generation will never have to deal with the problems such a test presents. How to cite Should the Sat Be Required?, Essay examples